Understanding Stroke: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
Author:
CPR Select
Last updated:
2/23/2025
Stroke, commonly known as a "brain attack," manifests as a critical medical situation caused by an interruption in cerebral blood circulation, resulting in the death of brain cells. Grasping the various categories of strokes, their underlying causes, and early symptom recognition is vital for immediate medical response and successful therapy.
What are the different types of strokes?
There exist three main classifications of strokes: ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, and transient ischemic attack (TIA). Each stroke subtype exhibits unique features, thereby requiring specialized diagnostic procedures and treatment plans.
Ischemic Stroke: An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot or plaque buildup obstructs a blood vessel, disrupting the brain's oxygen supply.
Hemorrhagic Stroke: A hemorrhagic stroke results from rupturing a weakened blood vessel in the brain, leading to bleeding within or around brain tissues.
Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA): Often called a mini-stroke, a Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) is a temporary disruption of blood flow to the brain, causing stroke-like symptoms that typically resolve within 24 hours.
1. Ischemic Stroke
An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot or a plaque (a fatty deposit) blocks a blood vessel, cutting off the blood supply to a part of the brain. This blockage prevents oxygen and essential nutrients from reaching the brain cells, leading to the damage or death of those cells.
Ischemic strokes are the most common type of stroke, accounting for about 87% of all stroke cases. Signs of an ischemic stroke often include sudden numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body. Individuals experience confusion, trouble speaking, severe headaches, and difficulty walking or maintaining balance.
Treatment often involves medication to dissolve the clot (thrombolytic therapy) or a procedure called mechanical thrombectomy to physically remove the clot and restore blood flow to the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic Stroke
Hemorrhagic strokes result from ruptured blood vessels, often due to uncontrolled high blood pressure, aneurysms, or arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Symptoms include severe headaches, vomiting, sudden numbness or weakness, difficulty speaking, and loss of consciousness. The condition lead to high pressure within the skull, causing further damage.
Treatment involve surgery to repair damaged blood vessels or aneurysms. Medications might be administered to control bleeding and reduce pressure inside the brain. Blood pressure management is crucial to prevent rebleeding.
3. Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)
TIA stands for Transient Ischemic Attack, a temporary blockage of blood flow to the brain. TIAs occur due to temporary disruptions in blood flow to the brain. The causes are similar to those of ischemic strokes, often involving blood clots or narrowed arteries. TIAs exhibit stroke-like symptoms that resolve within 24 hours, including temporary weakness, numbness, or speech difficulties.
Although symptoms vanish, TIAs are crucial warning signs. Medical evaluation is necessary to identify underlying issues and prevent future strokes. Lifestyle changes, medication, and addressing risk factors help manage TIAs effectively.
What are the Causes and Risk Factors for Stroke?
The causes of strokes vary, but some common risk factors include the following:
High Blood Pressure: Elevated blood pressure remains the leading cause of strokes. Prolonged high blood pressure weakens arteries, making them prone to ruptures or blockages, leading to strokes.
Heart Diseases: Conditions such as atrial fibrillation (an irregular heart rhythm) and other heart diseases create blood clots, which, when dislodged, travel to the brain and cause a stroke.
Diabetes: Diabetes increases the risk of strokes by damaging blood vessels and causing inflammation, making clots more likely to form.
Smoking: Smoking damages the cardiovascular system and thickens the blood and contributes to plaque build-up in the arteries, increasing the risk of strokes.
Unhealthy Diet and Physical Inactivity: A poor diet high in saturated fats, cholesterol, and sodium, coupled with a lack of exercise, lead to obesity, diabetes, and high blood pressure, all of which are significant stroke risk factors.
Excessive Alcohol Consumption: Heavy drinking raises blood pressure and lead to atrial fibrillation, both heightening the risk of strokes.
What are the Signs and Symptoms of Stroke?
Recognizing the signs and symptoms of stroke is pivotal because early intervention is the difference between life and death, or between a full recovery and lasting disabilities. Here’s what you should be aware of:
Sudden Numbness or Weakness: One side of the body might suddenly become numb or weak, affecting the face, arm, or leg. This occur out of nowhere and is a red flag.
Confusion or Trouble Speaking: A person experiencing a stroke might suddenly have difficulty speaking or understanding speech. Their words become slurred, or they are not be able to comprehend what others are saying.
Trouble Seeing in One or Both Eyes: Vision problems, such as sudden blurred or blackened vision in one or both eyesoccur. This manifest as double vision.
Severe Headache: A sudden and severe headache, often described as the worst headache of one's life, is a sign of a hemorrhagic stroke caused by bleeding in the brain.
Dizziness and Loss of Balance: Individuals might experience sudden dizziness, loss of balance, or lack of coordination. This make walking or standing difficult.
How can I provide first aid for someone having a stroke?
Time is the most critical factor in stroke intervention. The longer a stroke goes untreated, the greater the potential for brain damage and disability. Every minute counts. When these signs appear, it's crucial to call medical emergency services immediately. The acronym FAST is a helpful tool to remember:
F: Face Drooping: Is one side of the person’s face drooping or numb? Ask them to smile; a lopsided smile is a warning sign.
A: Arm Weakness: Is one arm weak or numb? Ask the person to raise both arms. Does one arm drift downward?
S: Speech Difficulty: Is speech slurred or difficult to understand? Ask the person to repeat a simple sentence. Is it repeated correctly?
T: Time to Call Emergency Services: If someone shows any of these symptoms, even if they go away, call for medical help immediately. Make a note of the time when the symptoms first appeared; this information is crucial for medical professionals.
Positioning the Person Comfortably
While waiting for medical help to arrive, making the person as comfortable as possible is essential. Here are some key points to consider:
Lay the person down: If they are not already sitting, help them lie down on their back with their head slightly elevated. This promotes blood circulation to the brain.
Ensure their head is supported: Use a soft pillow or cushion to support their head. Avoid propping their head too high, as this might restrict blood flow.
Loosen tight clothing: If the person is wearing tight clothing, especially around the neck, gently loosen or remove it. This aids in easier breathing and prevents unnecessary discomfort.
Calling for Emergency Medical Assistance
Promptly calling emergency services (call 911 or the relevant emergency number in your area) is crucial. Provide the dispatcher with all the relevant information, including the person's symptoms, the time they started, and any other pertinent details. Stay on the line until help arrives, as the dispatcher might need additional information or be able to offer valuable guidance.
How is a Stroke Diagnosed?
A stroke is diagnosed through a combination of medical history assessment, physical examination, and imaging studies. Healthcare professionals conduct a neurological examination to evaluate symptoms and inquire about the individual's medical history, including stroke risk factors. Imaging studies such as CT scans and MRIs play a key role in confirming the diagnosis and distinguishing between ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes. Quick and accurate diagnosis is crucial for prompt intervention and better outcomes.
What are the Treatment Options for Stroke?
Stroke treatment options depend on whether it is ischemic or hemorrhagic. For ischemic strokes, thrombolytic medications and mechanical thrombectomy aim to dissolve or remove blood clots. Hemorrhagic stroke treatment involves surgery or medication management to address bleeding causes. Rehabilitation, including physical, occupational, and speech therapy, helps recover skills. Medications such as antiplatelets and blood pressure drugs, along with lifestyle changes, play a role in preventing recurrence.
Are there any alternative therapies or treatments for stroke recovery?
While conventional therapies like physical and occupational therapy are the mainstays of stroke recovery, some individuals explore alternative therapies such as acupuncture, yoga, or certain dietary supplements. However, it's essential to consult healthcare professionals before attempting alternative treatments to ensure they complement the overall treatment plan and do not pose any risks or conflicts with prescribed medications.
What are the differences in stroke management for left-sided versus right-sided strokes?
Strokes on the left side of the brain often affect speech and language abilities. In contrast, strokes on the right side cause spatial awareness and visual problems. Treatment strategies focus on minimizing brain damage and addressing specific impairments, often involving rehabilitation programs tailored to the patient’s needs.
What are the potential complications or disabilities that result from a stroke?
Strokes lead to a range of complications and disabilities, depending on the severity and location of the brain damage. Common complications and long term disabilities resulting from a stroke include:
Paralysis or Weakness: Strokes cause paralysis or weakness in one side of the body (hemiparesis), leading to difficulty in movement and coordination.
Speech and Language Impairments: Damage to areas of the brain responsible for speech and language results in aphasia, making it challenging for individuals to communicate effectively.
Cognitive Impairments: Strokes affect memory, attention, and problem-solving abilities, leading to cognitive impairments and difficulties in daily tasks.
Emotional Changes: Strokes cause emotional disturbances, including depression, anxiety, mood swings, and personality changes.
Pain and Sensation Changes: Some individuals experience chronic pain, numbness, or tingling sensations, often on the affected side of the body.
Swallowing Difficulties: Damage to the brain's swallowing center leads to dysphagia, making it difficult to swallow food and liquids safely.
Vision Problems: Strokes affect vision, leading to partial or complete loss of vision, double vision, or difficulty in processing visual information.
Bladder and Bowel Issues: Strokes disrupt the normal functioning of the bladder and bowels, leading to incontinence or difficulties in controlling these functions.
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) and Pulmonary Embolism: Immobility after a stroke increases the risk of blood clots in the legs (DVT), which travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism) and cause life-threatening complications.
Fatigue: Many stroke survivors experience extreme fatigue, impacting their ability to engage in daily activities and rehabilitation exercises.
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What is a brain aneurysm, and how does it relate to strokes?
A brain aneurysm is a weakened area in a blood vessel in the brain that bulges out due to pressure. If it ruptures, it causes a hemorrhagic stroke, leading to bleeding in the brain. According to the Brain Aneurysm Foundation, about 30,000 people in the U.S. suffer a brain aneurysm rupture annually, and 40% of these cases are fatal.
What are the common complications of a stroke?
Stroke can cause temporary or permanent disabilities depending on how quickly treatment is received. Common complications include:
Paralysis or weakness on one side of the body
Difficulty speaking (aphasia) or swallowing (dysphagia)
Memory loss and cognitive decline (one-third of stroke survivors develop dementia)
Depression and mood swings (affecting up to 50% of survivors)
Increased risk of recurrent stroke (1 in 4 stroke survivors will have another stroke within five years)
What is cerebral ischemia?
Cerebral ischemia occurs when blood flow to the brain is restricted due to a blockage in an artery, depriving brain cells of oxygen. It is the leading cause of ischemic stroke, which accounts for 87% of all strokes (American Stroke Association). If untreated, brain cells begin to die within minutes, making rapid medical attention crucial.
What are the warning signs of a stroke or pre-stroke symptoms?
Pre-stroke symptoms, often due to a Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA), can last a few minutes to hours. Common warning signs include:
Sudden vision loss in one or both eyes
Numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg (especially on one side)
Dizziness, loss of balance, or coordination
Severe headache with no known cause
How does a right frontal lobe stroke affect a person?
A right frontal lobe stroke affects the brain's ability to control emotions, reasoning, and voluntary movements. It may lead to:
Impaired judgment and decision-making
Personality changes (increased impulsivity or apathy)
Difficulty moving the left side of the body
Is there a link between sepsis and stroke?
Yes. Sepsis, a severe infection that spreads through the bloodstream, can increase the risk of stroke by 38%, according to studies in Neurology. Sepsis causes inflammation and blood clotting abnormalities, which can lead to an ischemic stroke or brain hemorrhage.
What are the aftereffects of a stroke?
Stroke survivors may experience long-term effects, such as:
Physical disabilities: 50% of stroke survivors have long-term mobility issues.
Speech and communication difficulties: Up to 40% develop aphasia.
Cognitive decline: Stroke doubles the risk of dementia.
Depression and anxiety: Affects 30-50% of survivors.
How to avoid a stroke after a TIA?
A TIA (Transient Ischemic Attack) is a warning sign—1 in 3 people who have a TIA will suffer a full stroke later. Preventive steps includes taking prescribed blood thinners (aspirin, anticoagulants), controling high blood pressure, quitting smoking and reducing alcohol intake
Are pins and needles a sign of a stroke?
Yes, but only if the numbness occurs suddenly and is on one side, it’s accompanied by speech issues or facial drooping, and it affects movement or coordination. Pins and needles alone are usually not a stroke sign, but if persistent, seek medical advice.
Can a mini-stroke cause shaking?
Yes, TIAs or small strokes can cause shaking or tremors, especially if they affect the motor control areas of the brain.
Can ankylosing spondylitis kill you?
No. Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) itself is not fatal, but severe complications can be life-threatening. These include:
Heart disease (AS patients have a 30% higher risk of cardiovascular issues)
Lung problems due to spine and rib cage stiffness
Neurological issues if spinal fractures occur
Can connective tissue disease kill you?
Yes, some severe forms of connective tissue disease (CTD) can be fatal, particularly those affecting the heart, lungs, or kidneys. For example, Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can lead to kidney failure, Scleroderma may cause severe lung fibrosis, Vasculitis can lead to organ failure.
What happens if a stroke is left untreated?
An untreated stroke can cause permanent brain damage, as every minute without treatment leads to the loss of 1.9 million brain cells. It can also result in severe disability, with nearly 50% of stroke survivors experiencing long-term impairments in movement, speech, and daily activities. Additionally, stroke is the 5th leading cause of death in the U.S., and without prompt treatment, the risk of fatality increases due to complications like brain swelling or blood clots.
What does a stroke do to the body?
A stroke disrupts blood flow to the brain, causing brain cells to die. This can lead to loss of movement and coordination, often resulting in weakness or paralysis on one side of the body. It can also affect speech and memory, making it difficult to communicate or recall information. Additionally, a stroke may cause emotional and psychological changes, such as depression, anxiety, mood swings, or personality shifts due to brain damage in emotional regulation areas.
What can cause a mild stroke?
A mild stroke, or TIA, is caused by a temporary blockage of blood flow in the brain. Causes include:
High blood pressure
Atrial fibrillation
Diabetes
Smoking
What is a right-sided hemorrhagic stroke?
A right-sided hemorrhagic stroke happens when a blood vessel bursts in the right hemisphere of the brain. Symptoms include:
Paralysis or weakness on the left side of the body
Spatial and perception issues
Behavioral changes (impulsivity, lack of awareness of deficits)
What are the pre-stroke symptoms in women?
Women often experience unique stroke symptoms, including:
Fainting or confusion
Nausea or vomiting
Shortness of breath
Hiccups
Sudden behavioral changes
Can a stroke affect personality?
Yes. Right-side strokes often lead to personality changes, such as:
Increased impulsivity
Emotional instability
Poor judgment and problem-solving
Can low blood pressure cause a TIA?
Yes. While high blood pressure is the primary risk factor, extremely low blood pressure can reduce blood flow to the brain, triggering a TIA.
What is a cardioembolic stroke?
A cardioembolic stroke occurs when a blood clot forms in the heart and travels to the brain. Atrial fibrillation increases the risk by five times.
Can phentermine increase stroke risk?
Yes. Phentermine (a weight-loss drug) can raise blood pressure and heart rate, increasing stroke risk in high-risk individuals.
What does CVA stand for in medical terms?
CVA stands for Cerebrovascular Accident, another term for a stroke.
Can high blood sugar cause a stroke?
Yes. Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to ischemic stroke due to:
Increased clot formation
Narrowing of blood vessels
High blood pressure
Diabetics are twice as likely to suffer a stroke compared to non-diabetics.
Can you die from multiple sclerosis (MS)?
MS itself is not typically fatal, but severe complications like respiratory failure, infections, or cardiovascular disease can shorten life expectancy by 6-7 years.
Can rheumatoid arthritis kill you?
Yes, severe RA increases the risk of death due to:
Heart disease (50% higher risk)
Lung complications
Infections (due to immune suppression from medications)
What do you smell before a stroke?
Some anecdotal reports mention phantom smells (like burning toast or chemicals), but there is no scientific proof that smell changes are a stroke warning sign.
Do blood clots cause strokes?
Yes, blood clots (thrombi or emboli) are the leading cause of ischemic strokes. They can form:
In the heart (due to atrial fibrillation)
In the arteries (due to plaque buildup)
Traveling clots (embolism) can block brain arteries.
Is it possible for someone to have a stroke and not be aware of it until later?
Yes, it's possible to have a silent or minor stroke (known as a transient ischemic attack or TIA) with mild or no noticeable symptoms initially. However, these incidents often serve as warning signs and increase the risk of a major stroke. Hence, even if the symptoms are minor, medical attention is crucial.
What blood pressure level is associated with a stroke?
High blood pressure (hypertension) is a leading cause of stroke. However, stroke risk isn't solely determined by a single blood pressure reading. Rather, it's influenced by long-term blood pressure control and other risk factors such as smoking, diabetes, and high cholesterol.
Can stress cause a stroke?
While stress itself is not directly cause a stroke, it indirectly contributes to stroke risk by raising blood pressure and increasing the likelihood of unhealthy behaviors such as overeating, smoking, or excessive alcohol consumption. Chronic stress contributes to the development of conditions like hypertension and diabetes, which are risk factors for stroke.
Stroke in the Elderly
As individuals age, the risk of stroke increases immensely. Elderly individuals often have pre-existing health conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart diseases, which elevate the risk further. The impact of a stroke on the elderly is particularly devastating due to potential complications and longer recovery times. Therefore, caregivers and family members must be aware of the signs of stroke in the elderly. Rapid recognition and immediate medical attention are paramount, as early intervention improves outcomes.
Stroke in Children and Young Adults
Although less common, strokes occur in children and young adults. In these age groups, stroke might result from congenital heart defects, sickle cell disease, or traumatic injuries. In some cases, strokes in young individuals are ischemic, caused by blood clots, similar to strokes in older adults. Timely diagnosis and appropriate medical care are critical, and raising awareness about the signs of stroke among parents, teachers, and healthcare providers is essential to ensure swift action.
Stroke in People with Pre-existing Conditions
Individuals with pre-existing conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and atrial fibrillation are at a higher risk of strokes. Managing these conditions effectively through medication, lifestyle modifications, and regular medical check-ups is crucial in reducing the risk. Healthcare professionals play a pivotal role in educating patients about the importance of adhering to prescribed treatments and making necessary lifestyle changes. Additionally, routine monitoring and adjustments to treatment plans are vital to keep these conditions under control and minimize the risk of strokes.
Are there any differences in stroke symptoms between older adults and younger individuals?
While the core symptoms of stroke remain the same across age groups (such as sudden numbness, confusion, severe headache, etc.), younger individuals might not always recognize these symptoms as signs of a stroke. Moreover, strokes in younger people sometimes be caused by different factors, such as trauma or drug abuse, making diagnosis and treatment more complex.
How family members and caregivers support stroke survivors during their recovery?
Family members and caregivers offer vital support by encouraging and participating in rehabilitation exercises, helping with daily activities, providing emotional support, and creating an accessible and safe home environment. Additionally, involving stroke survivors in social activities and hobbies boost their confidence and motivation during recovery.
Can a dog have a stroke?
Yes, dogs experience strokes too, although it's less common compared to humans. Symptoms in dogs includes sudden weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, loss of balance or coordination, head tilting, blindness, circling, and collapse. If you suspect your dog is experiencing a stroke, it's crucial to seek veterinary attention immediately for proper diagnosis and treatment.
How long does a stroke last in a dog?
A dog's stroke can last from minutes to several hours, depending on severity. Recovery varies—some dogs improve within a few weeks, while others may have lasting neurological effects.
Can strokes be prevented entirely, or are they always a possibility?
While strokes cannot be entirely eliminated as a possibility, their risk is reduced through lifestyle modifications such as maintaining a healthy diet, regular exercise, managing stress, and avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. Proper management of underlying health conditions like hypertension and diabetes contributes to prevention.
Death rates from stroke have declined in the United States over the past decade, although stroke remains the fifth leading cause of death. Both new and recurrent stroke occurrences are decreasing, likely due to the wider use of preventive medications like statins and antihypertensives. Despite these positive trends, many strokes are still preventable, with major modifiable risk factors including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking, hyperlipidemia, obesity, poor diet, and physical inactivity.
What Does CPR Select Recommends to Prevent Stroke?
By adopting a health-conscious approach, individuals substantially reduce their risk of experiencing this potentially devastating condition. Here’s a comprehensive guide on how to prevent stroke:
Control High Blood Pressure: Hypertension is a leading cause of strokes. Regularly monitoring blood pressure levels and adhering to prescribed medications effectively manage this risk factor.
Maintain a Healthy Diet: Embrace a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. Reduce sodium intake to lower the risk of hypertension. Emphasize foods high in potassium, as it helps balance sodium levels.
Regular Exercise: Engage in physical activities like walking, jogging, swimming, or cycling for at least 150 minutes per week. Regular exercise helps control weight and improves cardiovascular health, reducing the risk of stroke.
Quit Smoking: Smoking damages blood vessels and increases the risk of strokes. Quitting smoking improves overall health and lowers the chances of stroke and other cardiovascular diseases.
Limit Alcohol Consumption: Moderation is key. Limit alcohol intake to moderate levels (up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men). Excessive alcohol consumption raises blood pressure and increases stroke risk.
Manage Diabetes: Keep blood sugar levels within the target range through proper diet, exercise, and medication as healthcare providers prescribe. Well-controlled diabetes reduces the risk of stroke.
Maintain a Healthy Weight: Being overweight or obese contributes to other risk factors like high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol. A balanced diet and regular exercise help maintain a healthy weight.
Control Cholesterol Levels: High LDL cholesterol levels (often termed “bad cholesterol”) lead to the buildup of plaques in arteries, increasing the risk of stroke. Healthy eating and regular exercise help manage cholesterol levels.
Manage Stress: Chronic stress contributes to hypertension. Practice relaxation techniques like meditation, yoga, or hobbies to manage stress effectively.
Regular Health Check-ups: Schedule regular medical check-ups to monitor blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and overall cardiovascular health. Early detection and management of risk factors are crucial in stroke prevention.
How Does Stroke Impact Quality of Life?
Stroke has a profound impact on an individual's quality of life, influencing various aspects of daily functioning and overall well-being. The effects are physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. Here are some ways in which stroke impacts quality of life:
Physical Impairments: Stroke survivors experience paralysis, weakness, or loss of coordination, affecting mobility and independence. Everyday activities such as walking, dressing, and eating becomes challenging.
Cognitive Changes: Stroke leads to cognitive impairments, including difficulties with memory, concentration, and problem-solving. These challenges affects the ability to perform tasks at home or work.
Speech and Communication Difficulties: Aphasia, a condition affecting speech and language abilities, is common after a stroke. This hinder communication and contribute to social isolation.
Emotional Consequences: Depression, anxiety, and mood swings are common emotional consequences of stroke. Coping with physical limitations, lifestyle changes, and the fear of recurrence contributes to emotional distress.
Social Impact: The physical and cognitive changes resulting from a stroke impact social interactions. Individuals experiences difficulty participating in social activities, maintaining relationships, or engaging in hobbies they once enjoyed.
Dependency on Caregivers: Severe strokes leads to increased dependency on caregivers for daily activities. This shift in roles and responsibilities affect both the stroke survivor and their family members.
Financial Strain: The costs associated with medical care, rehabilitation, and potential changes in employment status create financial stress for individuals and their families.
Despite these challenges, many stroke survivors make significant progress through rehabilitation and support. The extent of recovery varies widely among individuals, and ongoing therapy, adaptive strategies, and emotional support play crucial roles in improving quality of life after a stroke. Rehabilitation efforts focus on maximizing independence and enhancing overall well-being. Additionally, a strong support network, including healthcare professionals, family, and friends, contributes to the emotional and social recovery of stroke survivors.
Sources:
Infectious Causes of Stroke Review 2019 Dec:32:100767. doi: 10.1016/j.spen.2019.08.003.
Stroke Epidemiology and Risk Factor Management
American Stroke Association (ASA) – www.stroke.org
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Stroke – www.cdc.gov/stroke
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) – www.ninds.nih.gov
Mayo Clinic – Stroke – www.mayoclinic.org
World Health Organization (WHO) – Stroke Fact Sheet – www.who.int
Johns Hopkins Medicine – Stroke – www.hopkinsmedicine.org
Harvard Health – Stroke Prevention and Recovery – www.health.harvard.edu
